Are there possibilities to layout an ASP.NET web-application without directly using CSS and HTML ? I am mainly coming from the desktop-development world and I am in the first place familiar with the usage of layout- and container-controls like panels, tables, and so on.
Not really. The closest you could get would be to XAML equivalent. You will still need control declarations. Of course, you can do it all through the WYSIWYG designer anyway. So that will work until you need to get precise control.
Just like in desktop world you can drag and drop and visually manage the layout of your ASP.NET form in Visual Studio. The difference however is that your ASP.NET form will look different in different browsers.
In my opinion that is THE single worst way you can manage layouts in an ASP.NET site. I would strongly suggest learning the basics of CSS and HTML. I say this because in the longrun you will get a more maintainable, accessible and flexible site. There are plenty of questions on this site that will help you get started.
You should consider the usage of Silverlight instead of ASP.NET. Silverlight development is closer to the dekopt-world than the ASP.NET. Maybe its easier for you.